✦ Class 12 English Prose · Bihar Board

Ideas That Have
Helped Mankind

Bertrand Russell

A philosophical essay examining the great ideas — language, fire, the domestication of animals, agriculture and writing — that have shaped human civilization. Russell asks whether these ideas have truly helped mankind, and answers with characteristic wit and honesty.

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Bertrand Russell Philosopher · Mathematician · 1872–1970

The Author

Bertrand Russell (1872–1970)

One of the most influential philosophers, logicians and essayists of the twentieth century.

Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian and social critic. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950 "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought."

In his essay Ideas That Have Helped Mankind, Russell examines the great ideas that have shaped human history. He asks a fundamental question: what does it actually mean to say that an idea has "helped" mankind? Does it mean that mankind has become more numerous, less like animals, happier, more diverse in its enjoyments, more knowledgeable, or more friendly to one another?

Russell considers the evidence for each of these possibilities with his characteristic honesty and wit. He concludes that while some forms of progress are undeniable — the acquisition of knowledge, the growth of population, the mastery of technique — progress in happiness and friendliness is far more uncertain.

The essay is a classic example of Russell's clear, elegant prose and his ability to think critically about widely held assumptions. It invites the reader to question what we mean by "progress" and to consider whether the ideas that have shaped our civilization have truly made us better off.

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Full NameBertrand Arthur William Russell

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Born1872, Wales

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Died1970

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Nobel PrizeLiterature · 1950

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FieldsPhilosophy · Logic · Mathematics · Social criticism

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EssayIdeas That Have Helped Mankind

Quick Overview

Summary

Concise overview of the chapter.

In this philosophical essay, Bertrand Russell reflects on the ideas and inventions that have helped humanity progress from savagery to civilization. He distinguishes between ideas that have helped us physically (like tools, agriculture, machinery) and those that have helped us morally and intellectually (like language, writing, justice, and religion).

Russell begins with the discovery of fire and tools, which allowed early humans to survive and dominate nature. He then discusses agriculture, which transformed wandering tribes into settled communities — and thereby made civilization possible. The domestication of animals and the invention of the wheel further extended human power.

But Russell's real focus is on moral ideas. He points to language as the most important invention of all — without it, knowledge could not be accumulated or passed on. He praises writing as the second great breakthrough, which preserved knowledge across generations.

He then discusses cooperation — the recognition that humans survive better together than alone. The idea of justice — that rulers should be bound by rules — emerged slowly, but it is essential for any stable society. He also mentions monotheism and moral codes as ideas that helped unify large groups of people.

Russell warns, however, that progress is not automatic. Modern science and technology can be misused. He urges humanity to cultivate both knowledge and wisdom — for great ideas can build civilizations or destroy them. The essay ends with a call for moral imagination and global cooperation in the atomic age.

The good life is one inspired by love and guided by knowledge. — Bertrand Russell

The Text

Ideas That Have Helped Mankind

Bertrand Russell's philosophical essay on the ideas that have shaped human civilization.

01 What Does It Mean to Help Mankind?

Before we can discuss this subject we must form some conception as to the kind of effect that we consider a help to mankind. Are mankind helped when they become more numerous? Or when they become less like animals? Or when they become happier?

Or when they learn to enjoy a greater diversity of experiences? Or when they come to know more? Or when they become more friendly to one another? I think all these things come into our conception of what helps mankind, and I will say a preliminary word about them.

02 The Most Indubitable Respect — Numbers

The most indubitable respect in which ideas have helped mankind is numbers. There must have been a time when homo sapiens was a very rare species, subsisting precariously in jungles and caves, terrified of wild beasts, having difficulty in securing nourishment. At this period the biological advantage of his greater intelligence, which was cumulative because it could be handed on from generation to generation, had scarcely begun to overweight the disadvantages of his long infancy, his lessened agility as compared with monkeys, and his lack of hirsute protection against cold. In those days, the number of men must certainly have been very small. The main use to which, throughout the ages, men have put their technical skill has been to increase the total population. I do not mean that this was the intention, but that it was, in fact, the effect. If this is something to rejoice in, then we have occasion to rejoice.

03 Progressively Less Like Animals

We have also become, in certain respects, progressively less like animals. I can think in particular of two respects: first, that acquired, as opposed to congenital, skills play a continually increasing part in human life, and, secondly, that assuming more and more dominates impulse. In these respects we have certainly become progressively less like animals.

04 As to Happiness — I Am Not Sure

As to happiness, I am not sure. Birds, it is true, die of hunger in large numbers during the winter, if they are not birds of passage. But during the summer they do not foresee this catastrophe, or remember how nearly it befell them in the previous winter. With human beings the matter is otherwise. I doubt whether the percentage of birds that will have died of hunger during the present winter (1946-47) is as great as the percentage of human beings that will have died from this cause in India and central Europe during the same period. But every human death by starvation is preceded by a long period of anxiety, and surrounded by the corresponding anxiety of neighbours. We suffer not only the evils that actually befall us, but all those that our intelligence tells us we have reason to fear. The curbing of impulses to which we are led by forethought averts physical disaster at the cost of worry and general lack of joy. I do not think that the learned men of my acquaintance, even when they enjoy a secure income, are as happy as the mice that eat the crumbs from their tables while the erudite gentlemen snooze. In this respect, therefore, I am not convinced that there has been any progress at all.

05 Diversity of Enjoyments

As to diversity of enjoyments, however, the matter is otherwise. I remember reading an account of some lions who were taken to a movie showing the successful depredations of lions in a wild state, but none of them got any pleasure from the spectacle. Not only music, and poetry, and science, but football, and baseball, and alcohol, afford no pleasure to animals. Our intelligence has, therefore, certainly enabled us to get a much greater variety of enjoyment than is open to animals, but we have purchased this advantage at the expense of a much greater liability to boredom.

06 Intellectual and Moral Qualities

But I shall be told that it is neither numbers nor multiplicity of pleasures that make the glory of man. It is his intellectual and moral qualities. It is obvious that we know more than animals do, and it is common to consider this one of our advantages. Whether it is, in fact, an advantage, may be doubted. But at any rate it is something that distinguishes us from the brutes.

07 Are We More Friendly to One Another?

Has civilization taught us to be more friendly towards one another? The answer is easy. Robins (the English, not the American species) peck an elderly robin to death, whereas men (the English, not the American species) give an elderly man an old-age pension. Within the herd we are more friendly to each other than are many species of animals, but in our attitude towards those outside the herd, in spite of all that has been done by moralists and religious teachers, our emotions are as ferocious as those of any animal, and our intelligence enables us to give them a scope which is denied to even the most savage beast. It may be hoped, though not very confidently, that the more humane attitude will in time come to prevail, but so far the omens are not very propitious.

08 Two Kinds of Ideas

All these different elements must be borne in mind in considering what ideas have done most to help mankind. The ideas with which we shall be concerned may be broadly divided into two kinds: those that contribute to knowledge and technique, and those that are concerned with morals and politics. I will treat first those that have to do with knowledge and technique.

09 The Most Important and Difficult Steps — Language

The most important and difficult steps were taken before the dawn of history. At what stage language began is not known, but we may be pretty certain that it began very gradually. Without it, it would have been very difficult to hand on from generation to generation the inventions and discoveries that were gradually made.

10 The Utilization of Fire

Another great step, which may have come either before or after the beginning of language, was the utilization of fire. I suppose that at first fire was chiefly used to keep away wild beasts while our ancestors slept, but the warmth must have been found agreeable. Presumably on some occasion a child got scolded for throwing the meat into the fire, but when it was taken out it was found to be much better, and so the long history of cookery began.

11 The Taming of Domestic Animals

The taming of domestic animals, especially the cow and the sheep, must have made life much pleasanter and more secure. Some anthropologists have an attractive theory that the utility of domestic animals was not foreseen, but the people attempted to tame whatever animal their religion taught them to worship. The tribes that worshipped lions and crocodiles died out, while those to whom the cow or the sheep was a sacred animal prospered. I like this theory, and in the entire absence of evidence, for or against it, I feel at liberty to play with it.

12 The Invention of Agriculture

Even more important than the domestication of animals was the invention of agriculture, which, however, introduced blood-thirsty practices into religion that lasted for many centuries. Fertility rites tended to involve human sacrifice and cannibalism. Moloch would not help the corn to grow unless he was allowed to feast on the blood of children. A similar opinion was adopted by the Evangelicals of Manchester in the early days of industrialism, when they kept six-year-old children working twelve to fourteen hours a day, in conditions that caused most of them to die. It has now been discovered that grain will grow, and cotton goods can be manufactured, without being watered by the blood of infants. In the case of grain, the discovery took thousands of years; in the case of the cotton goods hardly a century. So perhaps there is some evidence of progress in the world.

It has now been discovered that grain will grow, and cotton goods can be manufactured, without being watered by the blood of infants. In the case of grain, the discovery took thousands of years; in the case of the cotton goods hardly a century. So perhaps there is some evidence of progress in the world. — Bertrand Russell

13 The Art of Writing

The last of the great prehistoric inventions was the art of writing, which was indeed a prerequisite of history. Writing, like speech, developed gradually, and in the form of pictures designed to convey a message it was probably as old as speech, but from picture to syllable writing and thence to the alphabet was a very slow evolution. In China the last step was never taken.

Quick Revision

Key Themes — Ideas That Have Helped Mankind

Six ideas that shape Bertrand Russell's philosophical essay.

❓ What Does "Helping Mankind" Mean?

Russell begins by questioning the very idea of "helping mankind." Does it mean becoming more numerous, less like animals, happier, more diverse in enjoyments, more knowledgeable, or more friendly? All these possibilities must be considered before we can judge which ideas have truly helped.

👥 The Growth of Population

The most indubitable respect in which ideas have helped mankind is numbers. Early homo sapiens was a rare species, terrified of wild beasts and struggling to survive. Technical skill, handed down from generation to generation, has enabled the human population to grow enormously.

🐦 Less Like Animals — But Happier?

We have become less like animals in two respects: acquired skills matter more than congenital ones, and forethought increasingly dominates impulse. But Russell doubts whether we are happier — human beings suffer not only real evils but all the evils they fear. "I am not convinced that there has been any progress at all."

🎭 Diversity of Enjoyments — and Boredom

Our intelligence has given us a much greater variety of enjoyment than animals have — music, poetry, science, sport. But we have purchased this advantage at the cost of a much greater liability to boredom. Animals cannot be bored; human beings can.

🤝 Friendliness Within and Outside the Herd

Within the herd, human beings are more friendly to each other than many animal species. But towards those outside the herd, our emotions remain as ferocious as any animal's — and our intelligence gives them a far greater scope. The hope for a more humane attitude exists, but the omens are not propitious.

🔥 The Great Prehistoric Inventions

Russell traces the great ideas that shaped civilization: language, which allowed knowledge to be handed down; fire, which gave warmth and cookery; the taming of domestic animals; agriculture, which brought both prosperity and human sacrifice; and writing, the prerequisite of history.

Assessment

Test Your Understanding

Multiple choice · Fill in the blanks · Short answer. Everything is drawn from the text above.

🧠 Part A — Multiple Choice

Choose the best answer for each question. Click Check Answers at the end to see your score.

Score: — / 0

✏️ Part B — Fill in the Blanks

Complete each sentence on the basis of the text. Type your answer, then click Check Answers.

Score: — / 0

📝 Part C — Short Answer Questions

Think through your answer first, then click Show Model Answer to compare.

Textbook Exercises

Complete Exercise Bank

All questions from the Bihar Board Class 12 English Prose textbook — with answers and model responses.

B.1 Write T for True and F for False

Read the following sentences and write T for true and F for false. Click to reveal the answer with explanation.

iIdeas help mankind.

True (T). The whole essay discusses the ways in which ideas have helped mankind — in numbers, in acquired skills, in diversity of enjoyments, and in knowledge and technique.

iiSurvival was never a problem for homo sapiens.

False (F). Russell says homo sapiens was once "a very rare species, subsisting precariously in jungles and caves, terrified of wild beasts, having difficulty in securing nourishment."

iiiLong infancy was a biological advantage to mankind.

False (F). Russell lists "his long infancy" as a disadvantage — one of the things that, along with "lessened agility" and "lack of hirsute protection," held back early humans.

ivMan's earliest technical skill was devoted to increasing their population.

True (T). "The main use to which, throughout the ages, men have put their technical skill has been to increase the total population."

vCongenital skills play a more important role than the acquired skills.

False (F). Russell says "acquired, as opposed to congenital, skills play a continually increasing part in human life" — so acquired skills are becoming MORE important.

viUnlike birds, human beings can foresee a catastrophe.

True (T). Russell says birds "do not foresee this catastrophe, or remember how nearly it befell them in the previous winter. With human beings the matter is otherwise."

viiForethought can avert physical danger.

True (T). "The curbing of impulses to which we are led by forethought averts physical disaster at the cost of worry and general lack of joy."

viiiThe intelligent qualities account for the glory of man.

True (T). Russell acknowledges that "it is his intellectual and moral qualities" that are said to make "the glory of man."

ixIn a secure future there are neither worries nor lack of joy.

False (F). Russell says the learned men of his acquaintance, "even when they enjoy a secure income," are not as happy as the mice that eat the crumbs from their tables. So a secure future does not guarantee freedom from worry or lack of joy.

B.2.1 Write T for True and F for False

iUtilization of fire was a milestone in human progress.

True (T). Russell calls the utilization of fire "another great step" — it kept away wild beasts, provided warmth, and led to cookery.

iiFire was used only for cooking.

False (F). Russell says fire was at first "chiefly used to keep away wild beasts while our ancestors slept," and the warmth "must have been found agreeable." Cooking came later.

iiiDomestication of animals had nothing to do with religion.

False (F). Russell mentions "an attractive theory" that people tried to tame whatever animal their religion taught them to worship. The tribes that worshipped lions and crocodiles died out, while those who held the cow or sheep sacred prospered.

ivOur earliest form of writing was pictorial.

True (T). Russell says writing "in the form of pictures designed to convey a message" was "probably as old as speech."

vInvention of agriculture was less important than domestication of animals.

False (F). Russell says: "Even more important than the domestication of animals was the invention of agriculture."

viIn course of time we have progressed.

True (T) — with a caveat. Russell concludes: "So perhaps there is some evidence of progress in the world." He notes that grain took thousands of years to be grown without bloodshed, while cotton goods took hardly a century.

B.2.2 Answer the Following Questions Briefly

1Has civilization taught us to be more friendly towards one another?

Within the herd, yes — human beings are more friendly to each other than many species of animals. Robins peck an elderly robin to death, whereas men give an elderly man an old-age pension. But towards those outside the herd, our emotions remain as ferocious as any animal's, and our intelligence gives them a far greater scope. So the answer is mixed: we are more friendly within our group, but no more friendly — perhaps less so — towards outsiders.

2What is our attitude towards those 'outside our herd'?

Russell says that "in our attitude towards those outside the herd, in spite of all that has been done by moralists and religious teachers, our emotions are as ferocious as those of any animal, and our intelligence enables us to give them a scope which is denied to even the most savage beast." In other words, we are hostile and dangerous to outsiders, and our intelligence makes our hostility far more destructive than an animal's.

3What are the two broad categories of ideas that have helped mankind?

The two broad categories are: (1) ideas that contribute to knowledge and technique, and (2) ideas that are concerned with morals and politics. Russell says he will treat first those that have to do with knowledge and technique.

4Did language play a role in human development?

Yes, language played a crucial role. Russell says: "Without it it would have been very difficult to hand on from generation to generation the inventions and discoveries that were gradually made." Language allowed knowledge to accumulate and be passed down, which is what made cumulative human progress possible.

5How many languages do you know apart from your mother tongue? Has it helped you in any way?

(Personal answer) I know Hindi and English apart from my mother tongue. Learning additional languages has helped me in many ways — it has given me access to more books, films and ideas; it has helped me communicate with more people; and it has made me more employable. Languages open doors to other cultures and ways of thinking.

C.1 Long Answer Questions

Prepare detailed answers. Click to reveal model responses.

1Discuss the ideas that have helped mankind.

Russell divides the ideas that have helped mankind into two broad categories: those that contribute to knowledge and technique, and those concerned with morals and politics. In the first category, he discusses language (which allowed knowledge to be handed down from generation to generation), fire (used to keep away wild beasts and later for cooking), the taming of domestic animals (especially the cow and the sheep), the invention of agriculture (which greatly increased food supply but also introduced human sacrifice), and the art of writing (the prerequisite of history). He notes that the most important and difficult steps were taken before the dawn of history. In terms of population, technical skill has helped mankind grow from a rare species to a vast population. Acquired skills have become more important than congenital ones, and forethought increasingly dominates impulse. Diversity of enjoyments has greatly increased, though at the cost of boredom. But Russell is not convinced that happiness has increased, and he notes that friendliness is limited to those within the herd. His final verdict is cautiously optimistic: "perhaps there is some evidence of progress in the world."

2How are human beings different from animals? Explain.

Russell identifies several key differences between human beings and animals. First, human beings have become "progressively less like animals" in two respects: acquired (learned) skills play a continually increasing part in human life, as opposed to congenital (inborn) skills; and forethought or assuming more and more dominates impulse. Second, human beings can foresee catastrophes — birds do not foresee winter hunger, but humans live in constant awareness of possible future evils. Third, human beings enjoy a much greater diversity of enjoyments — music, poetry, science, football, alcohol — none of which give pleasure to animals. Fourth, within the herd, human beings are more friendly to each other than many animal species. Fifth, human beings have intellectual and moral qualities that distinguish them from "the brutes." However, Russell also notes that outside the herd, human emotions are "as ferocious as those of any animal," and our intelligence gives them far greater destructive scope.

3How has civilization helped us? Discuss.

Civilization has helped us in several measurable ways. It has vastly increased our numbers — from a rare species struggling to survive to a global population of billions. It has given us mastery over fire, the domestication of animals, agriculture and writing. It has multiplied our enjoyments through art, music, poetry, science and sport. It has made us more friendly to each other within our own group. It has given us the ability to foresee and avert physical disasters through forethought. And it has given us a growing body of knowledge and technique, handed down from generation to generation. But Russell also warns that civilization has brought worries, anxiety, boredom, and a ferocity towards outsiders that is far more dangerous than animal aggression. So civilization has helped, but not unambiguously.

4Is it important for us to be civilized? Give examples of the civilized behaviour that you practise in your everyday life.

Yes, it is very important for us to be civilized. Civilization means more than material progress — it means moral development, self-discipline, courtesy, and consideration for others. Without civilization, we would be governed by raw impulse, like animals. Examples of civilized behaviour I practise: greeting elders respectfully; saying "please" and "thank you"; waiting my turn in a queue; not littering public spaces; helping someone who has fallen; speaking politely even when I disagree; respecting other people's religions and opinions; and controlling my anger when I am provoked. These small acts of self-restraint and courtesy make daily life more pleasant and orderly for everyone.

C.2 Group Discussion

Discuss the following in groups or pairs.

Role of good manners in everyday life.
Ideas pave the way for development.

C.3 Composition

Write in about 100 words on each of the following.

Write a letter to your friend in Delhi about the culture of Bihar.
Write a paragraph in about 100 words on the 'significance of original thinking'.

D.1 Dictionary Use

Ex 1Correct the spelling of the following words: numerus, preliminary, continually, variety, technique, acquaintance.

Corrected spellings:
numerous · preliminary · continually · variety · technique · acquaintance

Ex 2Look up a dictionary and write two meanings of each of the following words — the one in which it is used in the lesson and the other which is more common: herd, catastrophe, numbers, brutes, biological, skill, century, passage, erudite.

herd: (lesson) a group of animals or people; (common) a large group of cattle.

catastrophe: (lesson) a sudden great disaster; (common) a tragic event.

numbers: (lesson) the total count of people or things; (common) arithmetic figures.

brutes: (lesson) animals, especially large and fierce ones; (common) a cruel person.

biological: (lesson) relating to living organisms; (common) relating to biology as a subject.

skill: (lesson) an ability or technique; (common) expertise in a particular activity.

century: (lesson) a period of one hundred years; (common) a score of 100 in cricket.

passage: (lesson) a bird of passage — a migratory bird; (common) a narrow way through, or a section of a text.

erudite: (lesson) intellectual, cultured; (common) having or showing great knowledge.

D.2 Word-formation

Write the antonyms of the following words by adding prefixes like 'in-', 'un-', 'dis-', 'im-'.

Qadvantage · certain · definite · friendly · moral · agreeable · sure · foreseen · pleasure

advantage → disadvantage
certain → uncertain
definite → indefinite
friendly → unfriendly
moral → immoral
agreeable → disagreeable
sure → unsure
foreseen → unforeseen
pleasure → displeasure

D.3 Word-meaning

Match the words given in Column A with their meanings in Column B.

Ex 1Match: hirsute · catastrophe · erudite · snooze · humane · propitious · cannibalism

hirsute → covered with hair, furry
catastrophe → sudden great disaster
erudite → cultured
snooze → nod off
humane → compassionate
propitious → auspicious
cannibalism → barbarism

D.4 Phrases

Find the sentences in the lesson where these phrases are used, then use them in sentences of your own.

aat any rate

In the lesson: "But at any rate it is something that distinguishes us from the brutes."

My sentence: I am not sure whether he will come, but at any rate we should be ready.

bhave to do with

In the lesson: "I will treat first those that have to do with knowledge and technique."

My sentence: My question has to do with the schedule of the examination.

chand on

In the lesson: "Without it it would have been very difficult to hand on from generation to generation the inventions and discoveries that were gradually made."

My sentence: Parents hand on their traditions and values to their children.

dlast for

In the lesson: "blood-thirsty practices into religion that lasted for many centuries."

My sentence: The meeting lasted for nearly three hours.

etend to

In the lesson: "Fertility rites tended to involve human sacrifice and cannibalism."

My sentence: Students who study regularly tend to perform better in examinations.

E. Grammar — Prepositions

Fill in the blanks with correct prepositions.

aPlease read line 5 ____________ page 10.

Please read line 5 on page 10.

bBirds die ____________ hunger ____________ the winter.

Birds die of hunger in the winter.

cMamta prefers coffee ____________ tea.

Mamta prefers coffee to tea.

dMahatma Gandhi was born ____________ Porbandar ____________ Gujarat.

Mahatma Gandhi was born at Porbandar in Gujarat.

eChhabi swam ____________ the river.

Chhabi swam across the river.

fWe have become ____________ certain respects less like animals.

We have become in certain respects less like animals.

F. Activity — Prehistoric Ages

Visit a library or a museum or request your history teacher and gather information about the following. Click to reveal a summary.

1Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age

The Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age is the earliest period of human prehistory, lasting from roughly 2.6 million years ago to about 10,000 BCE. During this period, humans used crude stone tools, lived as hunter-gatherers, and were nomadic. They lived in caves and temporary shelters, used fire, and created early art such as cave paintings. Examples include the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh, India.

2Chalcolithic or Copper Age

The Chalcolithic or Copper Age is a transitional period between the Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Bronze Age, lasting roughly from 4,500 BCE to 3,500 BCE in some regions. During this period, humans began to use copper tools alongside stone tools. Copper was the first metal to be worked. Agriculture and settled village life continued to develop. In India, the Chalcolithic period is associated with cultures such as the Ahar, Kayatha and Malwa cultures.

3Neolithic or New Stone Age

The Neolithic or New Stone Age lasted roughly from 10,000 BCE to 4,500 BCE. It was marked by the development of agriculture, the domestication of animals, the making of polished stone tools, the invention of pottery, and the growth of permanent settlements. This period is often called the "Neolithic Revolution" because it transformed human life from nomadic hunting-gathering to settled farming. In India, Mehrgarh (in Balochistan) is an important Neolithic site.

📚 Glossary & Notes

Key words from the lesson with their meanings.

conception (n): idea, notion
diversity (n): variety, multiplicity
preliminary (adj): introductory, initial
indubitable (adj): which cannot be doubted
homo sapiens (n): a Latin term for the human race
hirsute (adj): covered with hair, furry
congenital (adj): from birth
catastrophe (n): sudden great disaster
curbing (n): restriction
erudite (adj): intellectual, cultured
depredation (n): destruction
multiplicity (n): a large number or a great variety of things
brutes (n): animals especially large and fierce
humane (adj): compassionate, kind
propitious (adj): favourable, auspicious
anthropologists (n): experts in anthropology
Moloch (n): an ancient Hebrew deity to whom children were offered as sacrifices
Evangelicals (adj): a sect of orthodox Christian Protestants
prerequisite (n): a thing required as a condition for something
thence (adv): from there